Vaishnavism is a major religious tradition within Indian philosophy that places Vishnu as the supreme divine principle. It integrates belief, values, philosophy, rituals, and devotional practice into a unified religious system.
The central orientation of Vaishnav Dharma is Bhakti (devotion), supported by knowledge (jñāna) and action (karma).
Even after the arrival of the Rajput period, the propagation of Vaishnava religion is seen. It is true that now it was not in the form of a state religion. Even then, many idols, inscriptions, and images related to it have been found. The most accurate proof of this is obtained from the Khalimpur copper plate grant, in which the inscription begins with a Vaishnava mantra—“Om”. The pranava Om is associated with Narayana. Associating Narayana or Vasudeva with it indicates the dominance of the Vishnu religion. Mention is made of the construction of a Narayana temple by Devapala of the same dynasty. The rulers of the Main dynasty used to call themselves “Parama Vaibhava.”
In Gita Govinda, Jayadeva has mentioned the Radha–Krishna sect. From this, it is known that Radha, who was dear to Krishna, also got a place in it. Around this time, a very beautiful and attractive idol of Govardhan-dhari Krishna was found from Paharpur. The practice of Vishnu Sahasranama was also prevalent in society during this period. In the inscription of Pratihara ruler Bhoja, the mention of Hrishikesha is found for Vishnu, who is completely Saguna but partially Nirguna as well.
Knowledge is also obtained about the construction of many Vaishnava temples during this period and about the donations given for them. Information is received about the construction of a Vishnu temple by Chandela ruler Parmardideva. Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh is a city of temples. The Chandelas constructed many Vaishnava temples there as well. In the Vetam donation charter of Paramara ruler Bhojadeva, the mention of hoisting the Garuda flag is found. From this, it is difficult to guess where the Vishnu temple might have been on which the Garuda flag was installed. Odisha was also a center of Vaishnava temples at that time. The Anant Vasudeva Temple built in Bhubaneswar during this period is extremely famous. It is a Vaishnava temple.
Generally, Vaishnava idols depict four-armed Vishnu holding the conch, discus, mace, and lotus. Along with him, Lakshmi and Vishnu’s vehicle Garuda have also been included. On the upper part of inscriptions, figures of Gaja-Lakshmi are usually engraved.
The discussion of avatars has already been done above. In different parts of India, various avatars of Vishnu have been carved in stone. In North India, mainly the figures of Matsya, Varaha, and Narasimha are found, while in Bengal, Vamana and Parashurama are also depicted. In Central India, the figure of Rama and his exploits have been shown. The famous Dashavatara temple of this period was situated on the banks of Sahasralinga Lake in Gujarat. It was built by Chalukya king Jayasimha Siddharaja.
Vaishnava vows and festivals had also become prevalent among the people. Knowledge of this is obtained from descriptions in various Puranas. In one inscription, Devshayani Ekadashi of the Shukla Paksha of Ashadha is mentioned. From this day, Vishnu goes into sleep, and he awakens again on Ekadashi of the Shukla Paksha of Kartika, which is indicated in another inscription as Devotthana Ekadashi. Similarly, in the Gangadhar inscription, Krishna Janmashtami is mentioned, which is celebrated on the eighth day of the Krishna Paksha of Bhadrapada. Al-Biruni has also mentioned the celebration of Rama Navami. From all this, it is clear that Vaishnava Dharma was in a developed state even at that time.
Vaishnava Dharma in South India
In South India, the propagation of Vaishnava Dharma became widespread from the same time when, during the Gupta period, the revival of Vedic religion was taking place in North India. In the Bhagavata Purana, a prophecy has been made that in the Dravida region, where rivers like Tamraparni and Kaveri flow, there will be a large number of Vaishnava devotees. In the same Purana, there is a story that a woman roaming around came to Gokul and narrated her story to Narada, saying—“I was born in the Dravida region; I gained strength in dharma in Karnataka and Maharashtra, from where I came to Gujarat.” This woman was a devotee who originated and developed in the South, and when she moved northwards, her strength declined so much that she became helpless. This helplessness was due to Islamic invasions that began in North India after Harsha, which caused damage to the accepted religious traditions of the Hindus.
In the South, the rise of devotion towards Vishnu and Shiva occurred during the Pallava rulers’ period as a reaction to the establishment of Buddhism and Jainism. During this time, philosophers first initiated the feelings of faith and self-surrender in devotion. On the basis of the philosophical principles propounded by them, inspiration was received for the Bhakti movement in North India. In South India, there were two categories of Vaishnava teachers—Alvars and Acharyas. While the Acharyas expounded their philosophical principles, the Alvars propagated religion through devotional songs. These were Vaishnava saints and poets.
(1) Alvars
Alvar is a Tamil word. In the Tamil language, its meaning is—“to be immersed in the grace and love of God.” Since they were completely immersed in devotion to God, they were called Alvars. Among the people, they were revered as servants of Vishnu and were looked upon with respect. They were identified with Adiśeṣa, Garuda, and Vishvaksena. Their number was twelve—Poigai, Bhutath, Pey, Tirumalisai, Kulasekhara, Periyalvar, Andal, Tondaradippodi, Tiruppan, Tirumangai, Nammalvar, and Madhurakavi. Most of their names were kept with devotional significance. They belonged to different social strata—Kulasekhara was a king, Tirumangai was a robber, Tondaradippodi was a Brahmin, and Tiruppan was a Harijan. Yet they were placed in the same line. There was a special sense of reverence for them in the minds of the people.
They composed hymns praising the virtues of God. This was the medium of their devotion. The collection of their songs is compiled in a text called “Nalayira Prabandham.” The total number of songs in it is four thousand. Even today, there is a practice of singing these hymns during worship in Dravidian temples of South India.
(B) Acharyas
Above, we have divided the Vaishnava devotees of the South into two categories—Alvars and Acharyas. From the word Acharya itself, it is clear that they were expounders and preachers of doctrines; therefore, they were addressed by this title. They propounded their views on the basis of logic. The use of the title Acharya for them began from this time, and the word Acharya was associated with their names, such as Acharya Nathamuni, Yamunacharya, Ramanujacharya, etc. The names discussed above were sequentially disciples of the preceding Acharyas. These Acharyas attempted to establish their doctrines by composing various texts.
Acharya Nathamuni was the first Acharya who composed the texts Nyayatattva and Yogarahasya. Texts such as Agama Pramana, Siddhitraya, Gita Sangraha, and Mahapurusha Nirnaya are found to be written by Yamunacharya. His disciple was Ramanujacharya, who, according to his guru’s command, wrote a new commentary on the Brahma Sutra, in which, instead of Shankara’s Advaita Brahman, God and devotee were considered separate so that the soul could worship God. With this viewpoint, he also wrote commentaries on the Upanishads and composed texts such as Vedanta Sara, Vedanta Sangraha, and Vedanta Deepa to establish the dualistic doctrine. Since his dualism was of a special type, it was named Vishishtadvaita. He accepted three realities in the world—matter (jada), soul (jiva), and God (Paramatma). The soul is considered conscious. Therefore, matter and soul together become similar to God. This is why the creation of the world emerges from the Supreme Reality and merges into it. Hence, the Supreme Reality is all-pervasive and resides in every being. When it resides in every being—within us, within you, in pillar and sword—its form is subtle, and when it desires creation, it expands that same all-pervasive form. Therefore, one should worship the Supreme Reality with devotion.
After this, information about many Acharyas is obtained. Among them, Madhvacharya holds a special place, who propounded Dvaitavada. In this, only two realities were accepted—individual soul and Supreme Soul. Later, Nimbarkacharya, a devotee of Krishna, supported Dvaitadvaita, and Vallabhacharya established the Pushti Marg.
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